Statement of Purpose

This is a two-to three-day teaching unit for inclusion in an American history survey course. This brief unit may be included in several places in the course: during discussion of Asian and Pacific immigration history; during discussion of the Viet Nam War and the consequences of that war; and during a discussion of the changing demographics and the potential impacts on race and ethnic relations in the United States.

Introduction

This teaching unit offers an overview history of the Vietnamese American experience. Too often students are left with the impression that Viet Nam was simply the name of a war in which the United States fought, and not the fact that Viet Nam is the name of a real country and that there are more than one million Vietnamese living in the U.S. With additional curricular support, American history teachers can insert this account into their courses without altering the current course format. Teachers can address questions concerning the role of the United States during the Viet Nam War and consider some of the impacts of that war. Students can study American history and its relations with other areas of the world, and the connection between Vietnamese refugees and other Asian Pacific American groups.

Objectives

To examine the perception, common in the United States, that Viet Nam was only the name of a war;

to examine the differences between immigrants and refugees;

to present the arrival of the Vietnamese as new migrants;

to compare the development of the Vietnamese American community with other Asian Pacific American communities; and

to compare the development of the Vietnamese American community with other racial/ethnic minority communities.

Historical Background

The history of Vietnamese Americans began with the end of the Viet Nam War in 1975. On 28 January 1973, after having spent years and millions of dollars financing the Viet Nam War, the United States government reluctantly agreed to withdraw its financial and military assistance after signing the Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Viet Nam. The peace agreement was signed by representatives of the United States, the Republic of Viet Nam (South Viet Nam), and the Democratic Republic of Viet Nam (North Viet Nam) in Paris. The agreement committed the United States and other signatories to respect the independence, sovereignty, unity, and territorial integrity of Viet Nam, called for prisoners of war to be exchanged, and declared an in-place cease fire.

Soon after the withdrawal of the United States military and economic support, the military situation deteriorated rapidly for the government of South Viet Nam. The flight of the Vietnamese refugees really began within the country, with the North Vietnamese military offensive of mid-March 1975 resulting in the defeats at Pleiku, Kontum, and Ban Me Thuot. As a result of this military offensive about one million refugees poured out of these areas and headed for Saigon and the coast. Most traveled by foot, few were fortunate enough to travel by car, truck, or motor bike. On 30 April 1975, the capital of South Viet Nam, and thus South Viet Nam, came under the control of the Provisional Revolutionary Government. This resulted in the flight of the Vietnamese refugees to the United States.

Before introducing students to the Vietnamese migration to the United States, be sure to include a discussion on the differences between a refugee and an immigrant. Refugees are typically people who are reluctant to uproot and resettle because of their social backgrounds and status; but they are forced to do so. Their flight usually results from being persecuted and/or physically harmed for past affiliation with certain political, social, religious, or military groups. Immigrants, however, have a choice. They make a “rational” decision based on relatively better economic opportunity, have to prepare for the journey, estimate the cost versus gain, make all the necessary arrangements, and only then, leave their country. Vietnamese refugees were not immigrants who chose to come to the U.S. for better political, social, and economic opportunities. Their migration was for the most part unplanned and out of desperation.

Vietnamese emigration is generally divided into two periods, each with several “waves.” The first period began in April 1975 and continued through 1977. This period included the first three waves of Vietnamese refugees in the United States. The first wave of refugees, involving some ten to fifteen thousand people, began at least a week to ten days before the collapse of the government. The second wave, and probably the largest in numbers, involved some eighty thousand, who were evacuated by aircraft during the last days of April. The evacuation of American personnel, their dependents, and Vietnamese affiliated with them was achieved through giant helicopters under “Operation Frequent Wind.”

These individuals were relatively well-educated, spoke some English, had some skills that were marketable, came from urban areas, and were westernized. Members of these two waves were primarily Vietnamese who worked for the U. S. government, American firms, or the Vietnamese government. All were thought to be prepared for life in the United States on the basis of their contact with the American government and association with Americans.

The final wave during this period involved forty to sixty thousand people who left on their own in small boats, ships, and commandeered aircraft during the first two weeks of May 1975. They were later transferred to Subic Bay, Philippines and Guam Island after having been picked up, in many cases, by U.S. Navy and cargo ships standing off the coast.

A second period of the Vietnamese refugee migration began in 1978. Since the fall of South Viet Nam in 1975, many Vietnamese have tried to escape the political oppression, the major social, and political and economic reforms instituted by the authoritarian government of North Viet Nam. Although the influx continues steadily, the numbers are no longer as massive as they once were. A significant characteristic of this period, especially between the years 1978 to 1980, is the large number of ethnic Chinese migrating out of Viet Nam and Cambodia.

In addition to the ethnic Chinese, there were many Vietnamese who left during this period. These individuals have been called “boat people” because the majority of them escaped in homemade, poorly constructed boats and wooden vessels. Due to flimsy vessels, scant knowledge of navigational skills, limited amount of provisions, and numerous attacks by Thai sea pirates, the death rate of the “boat people” was and is very high. Many of the boat people are awaiting their fate in refugee camps throughout Southeast Asia. In addition, since 1979 many former receiving countries are turning away refugees because of the economic, political, and social strains that they are allegedly precipitating.

The United States Response

At the end of the war, the American public was hostile toward the Vietnamese refugees. A Gallup Poll taken in May 1975 showed that “54% of all Americans opposed . . . admitting Vietnamese refugees to live in the United States and only 36% were in favor with 12% undecided.” The common concern of the American public stemmed from economic self-interest—fears of job losses as well as increased public welfare expenditures.

To minimize the social and economic impact of the large influx of Vietnamese refugees on an American public unfavorable to the Viet Nam War, the United States government adapted the Refugee Dispersal Policy. This policy served four purposes: (a) to relocate the Vietnamese refugees as quickly as possible so that they could achieve financial independence; (b) to ease the impact of a large group of refugees on a given community which might otherwise increase the competition for jobs; (c) to make it easier logistically to find sponsors; and (d) to prevent the development of an ethnic ghetto. If this policy was carried out successfully, the Vietnamese refugees would theoretically assimilate into American society.

As a result, nine voluntary agencies (VOLAGS) were contracted by the government’s Interagency Task Force to handle the resettlement of the refugees in the United States. The agencies included the United Hebrew Immigration and Assistance Service, the Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, the International Rescue Committee, Church World Service, the American Funds for Czechoslovak Refugees, the United States Catholic Conference, the Travelers Aid International Social Service, and the Council for Nationalities Service. Each refugee family was asked to choose a resettlement agency. If the refugee did not have a preference, an agency was assigned to the family.

The primary task of those agencies was to find sponsors possessing the ability to fulfill both financial and moral responsibilities and to match them with the refugees’ families. In short, the sponsors were to introduce the Vietnamese refugees into society, simultaneously helping them to become economically self-supporting. Sponsors included congregations, parishes or affiliates, individual families, corporations, and companies with former Vietnamese employees.

This policy resulted in the relocation of Vietnamese throughout the United States. A few years after this dispersion, however, many Vietnamese began to participate in a secondary migration. That is, since their initial resettlement, many have migrated and relocated to a few states. The 1980 census data on the Vietnamese indicated that the most populated states were California—34.8 percent, Texas—11.3 percent, Louisiana—4.4 percent, Washington—3.7 percent, Virginia—3.9 percent, Pennsylvania—3.3 percent, and Florida—2.9 percent. The 1990 census data also reflect this pattern. The states in which the refugees concentrated their secondary migration are still those states most populated with Vietnamese. With 45.4 percent of the population, California is still the state most preferred by Vietnamese refugees. Texas is still second at 11.3 percent. Washington—4.8 percent and Virginia—3.3 percent have moved ahead of Louisiana—2.9 percent. Florida is still fifth with 2.65 percent while Pennsylvania is now sixth with 2.57 percent. These seven states together have almost 73 percent of the total number of Vietnamese refugees living in the United States. These cultures within these states provide social and psychological support, a warmer climate which is similar to their homeland, and job and economic opportunities.

As a result of the original resettlement, the secondary migration process, and the length of time since their first arrival in 1975, Vietnamese refugees have been able to establish communities throughout the United States, but are generally located in metropolitan and urban areas.

Since the Vietnamese were forced to leave their country as a result of the war, personal adjustments—such as becoming proficient in English, separating from families, and dealing with war memories—are pressing issues. Because many Vietnamese did not know English, learning a new and different language became an important criterion for adjusting to new living conditions in the United States. In addition, the Dispersal Policy forced many extended families to separate, and some Vietnamese have found themselves in new and unfamiliar communities without family or the community support networks which were of great importance in Viet Nam. Finally, because of the traumatic experiences incurred while leaving their homeland, many experience depression, anxiety, alienation, a sense of helplessness, and recurring war nightmares.

To assimilate into the United States economically as quickly as possible, many Vietnamese were forced to obtain low paying jobs. Even for those who were professionals in their country, their credentials failed to transfer—or simply were not accepted—in the United States. The large number of people who were members of the military had skills which were no longer marketable. And, because many did not have the necessary skills to find high paying jobs, both men and women have had to find employment.

It is easier for women to find employment, especially in the service and low-skill sectors, and women began to occupy positions traditionally held by men. That is, women have succeeded in achieving a degree of economic independence through their employment outside the home. In some cases, women support the entire family while the men receive technical or educational training for occupations with specific skills. Family conflicts between husbands and wives resulted as an unfortunate side effect. Since women were more likely to find jobs than men and in some instances became the only income earner, traditional family roles and authority were changing. Men were no longer the sole provider for the family and their authority was no longer as clear as it was in Viet Nam.

In general, it is easier for immigrant children to adapt to the U.S. After an initial period of confusion, alienation, and uncertainty, most Vietnamese children have resumed their education. In some cases, many have been successful and have continued on to higher education. There are a substantial number of Vietnamese Americans who are attending prestigious colleges and universities throughout America. Upon graduation, these individuals have also become members of the professional group or skilled workers in America.

However, while there has been some success in the field of education, Vietnamese Americans are not a “model minority.” After the fall of Viet Nam in 1975, only a small group of children continued their education. Many younger Vietnamese Americans had problems adjusting to American school. Those who seemed to be having the most problems adjusting are those who came either as unaccompanied minors or the recent arrivals. These individuals primarily immigrated after 1975 and most likely came at an age when it was difficult to learn a new language and adjust to a new society; some have turned to gangs, drugs, gambling, and other illegal activities. The formation of youth gangs might have resulted from their inability to catch up with their peers in schools, their unfamiliarity with a strange land, and perhaps their alienation from their families due to cultural gaps.

For the elderly Vietnamese Americans, depression, isolation, loneliness, loss of family and homeland, and a feeling of helplessness are among the most prevalent problems. Because of their inability to speak English, many have experienced difficulties finding jobs commensurate with their skills. In addition, many are frustrated by their lost status and authority, their inability to speak with their children and grandchildren. For them, younger Vietnamese Americans have acculturated too quickly and seem to have discarded many of the values of their parents and homeland, instead substituting new American values. As a result, the traditional authority and status accorded to the elderly has all but disappeared. Finally, elderly Vietnamese Americans are disappointed at not being able to contribute to the welfare and well being of their families in the way they had done in Viet Nam. The traditional Vietnamese family structure has drastically changed for them.

There is evidence that things are stabilizing in many Vietnamese American communities. After a period of social, economic, and familial adjustment, the communities have turned their attention to interaction with the larger society. Those Vietnamese Americans who have spent most of their lives in the United States are coming of age and beginning to exert some of their influence. Because the older generation sacrificed to enable the younger generation to receive a good education and/or obtain the necessary skills for professional employment, many of the youth have returned to build their own communities. While building their ethnic communities, they are simultaneously participating in the larger society through their involvement in political, economic, and social processes.

Despite their recent arrival, Vietnamese Americans have contributed greatly to the American mosaic. Vietnamese communities located throughout the United States do not exist in isolation from the larger society but, rather, are positioned in a relationship with other communities. Furthermore, these communities serve as places for cultural preservation, providing Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese alike the chance to participate in a variety of cultural activities. These activities range from celebrating Tet, or the Lunar New Year, the Mid-Autumn Lantern Festival, new forms of Vietnamese American arts, and religious and cultural ceremonies.

Bibliography

Baldwin, C. Beth. Patterns of Adjustment: A Second Look at Indochinese Resettlement in Orange County. Orange County Immigrant and Refugee Planning Center, 1984.

Caplan, Nathan, et al. The Boat People and Achievement in America: A Study of Life, Hard Work and Cultural Values. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989.

Do, Hien Duc. “The New Outsiders: Vietnamese American in Higher Education.” In Privileging Positions: The Sites of Asian American Studies. Edited by Gary Y. Okihiro, Scott K. Wong, Marilyn Alquizola, and Dorothy Fujita Rony. Pullman: Washington University Press, 1995.

Freeman, James A. Hearts of Sorrow: Vietnamese American Lives. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989.

Gliner, Bob and Hien Duc Do. 1994. “Viet Nam: At the Crossroads.” Video, One Hour. Distributed by San Jose, California PBS/KTEH.

Grant, Bruce. The Boat People—An “Age” Investigation. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1979.

Haskins, James. The New Americans: Vietnamese Boat People. New Jersey: Enslow Publishers, 1980.

Hayslip, Le Ly with Jay Wurts. When Heaven and Earth Changed Places: A Vietnamese Woman’s Journey from War to Peace. New York: Doubleday, 1989.

Hein, Jeremy. From Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia: A Refugee Experience in the United States. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995.

Huynh, Jade Ngoc Quang. South Wind Changing. Saint Paul: Graywolf Press, 1994.

Kibria, Nazli. Family Tightrope: The Changing Lives of Vietnamese Americans. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Montero, Darrel. Vietnamese Americans: Patterns of Resettlement and Socioeconomic Adaptation in the United States. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1977.

Nguyen, Qui Duc. Where the Ashes Are: The Odyssey of a Vietnamese Family. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1994.

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Schaefer, Richard T. and Sandra L. Schaefer. “Reluctant Welcome: US Responses to South Vietnamese Refugees.” New Community 4 (1975): 366-70.

Starr, Paul D. “Troubled Waters: Vietnamese Fisherfolk on America’s Gulf Coast.” International Migration Review 15 (1981): 226-38.

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Wain, Barry. The Refused: The Agony of the Indochina Refugees. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981.

Viet Nam Chronology

1627 French influence begins in Viet Nam when Alexander De Rhodes, a missionary, adapts Vietnamese language to Roman alphabet.

1787 French military intervenes in Vietnamese political affairs.

1861 French military forces capture Viet Nam.

1863 French influence spreads to Cambodia.

1887 France creates Indochina, which includes Viet Nam, Laos, and Cambodia.

1940 Japanese troops occupy Indochina.

1945 World War II ends. France attempts to return to and occupy its former colonies in Indochina.

1954 The French were defeated by the Viet Minh, led by General Vo Nguyen Giap at Dien Bien Phu.

1954 Geneva Conference. Viet Nam was temporarily partitioned under the Geneva Accord. There was to be a national election held in 1956. The national election never took place. The U.S. helped evacuate one million northern Vietnamese Catholic refugees to the South.

1954 Ngo Dinh Diem becomes premier of the Republic of Viet Nam (South Viet Nam). Ho Chi Minh becomes the leader of North Viet Nam.

1963 A coup d’etat and the assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem and Ngo Dinh Nhu.

1964 The Gulf of Tonkin Incident. President Johnson asked Congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. The resolution passed and thus began the “formal” involvement of the U.S. in Viet Nam.

1965 Arrival of American combat troops in South Viet Nam.

1967 After a series of coup d’etat, Generals Nguyen Van Thieu and Nguyen Cao Ky became the president and vice president of South Viet Nam.

1968 The Tet Offensive. Vietnamese communists temporarily occupied South Viet Nam for a few hours, including the U.S. Embassy. Number of American soldiers reaches its peak.

1973 Paris Peace Agreement signed between North and South Viet Nam. This ended the U.S. military involvement in Viet Nam.

1975 Prime Minister Thieu resigned on April 21. North Viet Nam defeated South Viet Nam and captured the country on April 30. More than 100,000 Vietnamese flee their country as refugees.

1980 Passage of the Refugee Act of 1980. This Act defined refugee status and required the federal government to provide assistance to the refugees. Ethnic Chinese were forced to leave Viet Nam.

1987 Amerasian Homecoming Act allowed Vietnamese born of American fathers to emigrate to the U.S.

Vietnamese Population in the U.S. (1990) by State and Percentage

Alabama	2274	0.37	Montana	159	0.03
Alaska	582	0.09	Nebraska	1806	0.29
Arizona	5239	0.85	Nevada	1934	0.31
Arkansas	2348	0.40	New Hamp.	553	0.09
California	280,223	45.36	New Jersey	7300	0.12
Connecticut	4085	0.66	New Mexico	1485	0.24
Delaware	348	0.06	New York	15555	2.52
D.C.	747	0.12	North Carol.	5211	0.84
Florida	16,346	2.65	North Dakota	281	0.05
Georgia	7801	1.26	Ohio	4964	0.80
Hawaii	5468	0.89	Oklahoma	7320	1.19
Idaho	600	0.10	Oregon	9088	1.47
Illinois	10,309	1.67	Pennsyl.	15887	2.57
Indiana	2467	0.40	Rhode Island	772	0.13
Iowa	2882	0.47	South Carol.	1752	0.28
Kansas	6577	1.07	Tennessee	2062	0.33
Louisiana	17,598	2.85	Texas	69634	11.27
Maine	642	0.10	Utah	2797	.045
Maryland	8862	1.44	Vermont	236	.04
Massachusetts	15,449	2.50	Virginia	20693	3.30
Michigan	6117	0.99	Washington	29697	4.81
Minnesota	9387	1.52	West Virginia	184	.03
Mississippi	3815	0.62	Wisconsin	2494	.40
Missouri	4380	0.71	Wyoming	124	.02
Colorado	7210	1.12	Total:	617,747	100

Source: 1990 U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census Population and Housing: Summary Tapefile 1C. February 1992. CD90-1C.