During the 1970s we frequently heard the statement, “Johnny can’t read.” By the 1980s critics claimed that “Janey can’t write.” Along the way we also learned that neither Johnny or Janey could think, at least not at what educators judged appropriate levels. We heard the same lament at elementary and secondary schools and at colleges and universities. Many teachers found quick fixes in “writing across the curriculum” and in placing greater emphasis on “critical thinking” activities. Some of this worked, but often we added to an already increasing burden of planning, preparation, presentation, and grading. One way to relieve some of this pressure on teachers while helping students with their reading, writing, and thinking is to make better use of cooperative activities in the classroom. One such method is reader response, where students read and critique each other’s writing.

One of the fallacies that many teachers bring to their classrooms is their belief that students do not want to write or are scared of writing. To test this assumption, I once asked students in my college-level American history survey how they felt about writing. This certainly was not a scientific survey; I was not really interested in quantifying the findings or continuing the study over several years. I just wanted to know, “How do you feel when you are asked to write for a class?” There was some uneasiness expressed: “I would rather do something else” or “I feel nervous when asked to write in class...because I’m not confident of my writing.” But these were minority comments that hardly reflected the broader sentiment.

I remember being pleasantly surprised when most students said they did not shy away from writing activities. “How do you feel when you are asked to write...” brought some brief responses such as “rushed,” “comfortable,” and “challenged.” Others responded in more detail, but generally they indicated that writing helped them learn history better. One other typical comment hardly surprised me: “I don’t like [writing activities] to be very long.”

My response to all this was to emphasize short and simple writing activities, using a system that I call “KISSing” in the classroom, with perhaps five or six short exercises rather than one or two term papers (1). I mix in-class and out-of-class writing activities, and I use reader response (some call it “peer review”) to help students improve and polish their writing before it gets to me for reading and evaluation. The more students write, the better they feel about their writing. And the combination of several short activities and reader response assures students regular evaluation and feedback about their work from peers as well as instructors (2).

Reader Response in Action

In both freshmen surveys and upper-level courses for majors and minors, I use a variety of writing activities. For most of them, I offer time during class for reader response. This requires time previously used for lectures or discussions, but the improved quality of my students’ writing and their increased pride in their work more than compensate. The class time is not lost; rather it is given to different sorts of activities where students having a greater role in their own learning.

Once I committed to reader response, I put together a two-part handout for students, a copy of which accompanies this article. The first section, “Format for Reader Response,” advises students how to proceed, suggests some “steps to take,” and offers questions to direct their reading and responding.

The second part of the handout consists of the “Reader Response Form,” which each student reviewer completes after reading the essay. The reading of the essay and completion of the response form should take about twenty to thirty minutes, or less, depending on the length of the assignment. The two students then talk together for the remainder of the period, explaining their reactions and comments. During this time I walk around the room to answer any questions and to make certain that everyone is on task. Students leave class with the reader response form in hand as a tangible reminder of the day’s work and with a better idea of what can be done to make the essay better before it comes to me for my reading and evaluation.

My experience has been that students take this activity seriously. Student writers usually put forth substantial effort preparing the essay rather than face the embarrassment that would come with insufficient work. The reviewers, in turn, try to do good work on the responses because, at the same time, their peers are providing responses for their papers. Students really try to help one another, and I guide the reader response by providing some specific things to do in the review process. No free rein here—there are specific points to address: the best paragraph, the weakest paragraph, and “two things...to make the paper stronger.”

After the review session, I give students time to rework their papers outside of class before they are due—usually two to three days. Students are free to accept or reject advice from their readers; after all, each student is responsible for his or her own work. But I do require students to submit the first draft and the reader response form with the finished paper. I find that students usually give each other good suggestions and that many of the peer comments help to improve the essays I receive for grading. As a side note, the reader response forms also tell a good deal about the peer reviewer. Did he or she take the responsibility seriously or “blow off” the activity? This information can be useful at final grade time when an instructor has to wrestle with tough grade decisions.

Students appreciate the opportunity to engage in reader response before I evaluate their work. In fact, last fall, after using reader response for the first paper but not for the second in one upper-level class, students remarked on end-of-semester evaluations that I should have required it for both papers. I suggest that students can and should use reader response whether it is assigned as a class activity or not, that they should solicit a peer’s advice on any work they complete. Although they know that it can help, some students remain hesitant to ask for another student’s help. For others, reader response has become a regular part of any writing activity.

Other Uses of Reader Response

Reader response has worked so well to improve student work that I have expanded its use in my classes, especially in introductory surveys with larger numbers of freshmen and sophomores. In these classes I depend heavily on essay questions on exams to evaluate student knowledge. To help students prepare better for these essays, I use a series of pre-test writing exercises to improve students’ test-taking skills.

A few classes before an exam, I devote an entire class session to a pre-test writing exercise, using an essay question similar to those that will appear on the coming test. Students are free to use their notes and textbook to refresh their memories about the issues involved with the question. They write for about fifteen minutes and then use reader response (working in pairs or triads) to improve their work. Finally, they rework the essay in class, using the reader’s comments, to finish with the best possible essay. I do not collect these essays, although I tell students I will read them if they wish. However, I am more interested in students familiarizing themselves with the essay process. Students take this activity seriously. They know that this can help them on test day, and their comments at the end of the term reflect this belief.

In an effort to give students a sense of good essay format, I occasionally suggest a specific form for the pre-test writing activity. This “hint” seems to help students get into the activity quickly and easily. The following examples, one from each half of the American survey, illustrate this method.

Pre-Test Writing Exercise: United States History to 1865

During the early years of the Republic, the American people gravitated toward the differing political philosophies of Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, setting the stage for the development of political parties in the United States. Compare and contrast the ideas of Hamilton and Jefferson on political and economic issues. Which of the two men offered the most realistic position for the young nation to take?

Your response should take the form of a four-paragraph essay:

1. Introduction: briefly noting the differences between Hamilton and Jefferson;
2. Political issues: e.g., elitism vs. democracy;
3. Economic issues: e.g., views on bank of U.S.;
4. Conclusion: briefly again draw out the differences with an eye to one being “more realistic” than the other.

Pre-Test Writing Exercise: United States History Since 1865

After World War II the two superpowers emerging from the war—the United States and the Soviet Union—plunged into a “cold war” that dominated global politics for decades. Looking at world events in the mid- to late-1940s, and illustrating your response with specific examples, tell me which country you believe responsible for the onset of the cold war.

Your answer should take the form of a four-paragraph essay:

1. Introduction to concept of cold war;
2. The case against the Soviet Union;
3. The case against the United States;
4. Summary and conclusion.

Students tell me informally and on end-of-semester evaluations that these pre-test writing exercises have helped them in American history—and in other classes as well when they create their own pre-test writing activities. By having some sense about format for their essays, they face tests with greater ease and more confidence. And by seeing the value of reader response on this exercise (even if they cannot duplicate that aspect of the exercise during an exam), they understand that reader response can help them with all of their writing.

Conclusion

Johnny and Janey still have some problems with their reading and writing and thinking, and reader response is certainly no panacea. Neither is it simply a quick fix. Nevertheless, it is a valuable instructional device. Reader response is an easy way to introduce cooperative learning into the classroom. Students learn to respect each other’s work, to provide constructive criticism, and to interact in a positive manner. This method also gives students some control over their own education, which makes learning more likely, and that is a good part of what we want to accomplish in our teaching.

Endnotes

1. See Stephen Kneeshaw, “KISSing in History, or Designing Sequential Writing Assignments,” Washington English Journal 7 (Spring 1985): 9-12; and Stephen Kneeshaw, “KISSing in the History Classroom: Simple Writing Activities That Work,” The Social Studies 83 (July/August 1992): 176-79.

2. Every academic discipline seems to have experienced a growth industry in books about writing in the field. History is no exception. See Anthony Brundage, Going to the Sources: A Guide to Historical Research and Writing (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1989); Richard Marius, A Short Guide to Writing About History (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1989); and Henry J. Steffens and Mary Jane Dickerson, Writer’s Guide: History (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1987).

Format for Reader Response

The purpose of this class exercise is to improve the quality of the writing assignment you now have in the final stages of preparation. Getting a reader response (or peer review) for your paper provides an opportunity to get an outside opinion of your work from someone familiar with your assignment.

Our time for this activity is limited to the hour for class, but that is enough time to offer a good response to one another if you get into the review process quickly.

Steps to take:

1. Read the essay quickly but carefully.

2. Try not to focus on errors in spelling, grammar, etc., although you can indicate to your peer the need to proofread.

3. Concentrate on major concerns within the essay:

• Does the paper fulfill the needs of the assignment?
• Does the author stay true to the topic?
• Does the author do what he or she says will be done?
• Does the paper have good flow-from beginning through middle to the conclusion-from paragraph to paragraph?
• Does the research support the essay adequately?

4. Share your thoughts, offering constructive feedback/criticism, but remember this is not your paper and it is not your responsibility to rework it.

Reader Response Form

Stephen Kneeshaw is a professor of history at College of the Ozarks and editor of Teaching History: A Journal of Methods, <http://www.emporia.edu/ socsci/ journal/main.htm>. In addition, he is a workshop facilitator for the Houghton-Mifflin Workshop series on “Teaching for Learning.”